Comparative plastome analysis and taxonomic classification of snow lotus species (Saussurea, Asteraceae) in Central Asia and Southern Siberia.

Four species of Saussurea, namely S. involucrata, S. orgaadayi, S. bogedaensis, and S. dorogostaiskii, are known as the "snow lotus," which are used as traditional medicines in China (Xinjiang), Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, and Russia (Southern Siberia). These species are threatened globally, because of illegal harvesting and climate change. Furthermore, the taxonomic classification and identification of these threatened species remain unclear owing to limited research. The misidentification of medicinal species can sometimes be harmful to health. Therefore, the phylogenetic and genomic features of these species need to be confirmed. In this study, we sequenced five complete chloroplast genomes and seven nuclear ITS regions of four snow lotus species and other Saussurea species. We further explored their genetic variety, selective pressure at the sequence level, and phylogenetic relationships using the chloroplast genome, nuclear partial DNA sequences, and morphological features. Plastome of the snow lotus species has a conserved structure and gene content similar to most Saussurea species. Two intergenic regions (ndhJ-ndhK and ndhD-psaC) show significantly high diversity among chloroplast regions. Thus, ITS and these markers are suitable for identifying snow lotus species. In addition, we characterized 43 simple sequence repeats that may be useful in future population genetic studies. Analysis of the selection signatures identified three genes (rpoA, ndhB, and ycf2) that underwent positive selection. These genes may play important roles in the adaptation of the snow lotus species to alpine environments. S. dorogostaiskii is close to S. baicalensis and exhibits slightly different adaptation from others. The taxonomic position of the snow lotus species, confirmed by morphological and molecular evidence, is as follows: (i) S. involucrata has been excluded from the Mongolian flora due to misidentification as S. orgaadayi or S. bogedaensis for a long time; (ii) S. dorogostaiskii belongs to section Pycnocephala subgenus Saussurea, whereas other the snow lotus species belong to section Amphilaena subgenus Amphilaena; and (iii) S. krasnoborovii is synonymous of S. dorogostaiskii. This study clarified the speciation and lineage diversification of the snow lotus species in Central Asia and Southern Siberia.

Saussurea costus (Falc.) Lipsch.: a comprehensive review of its pharmacology, phytochemicals, ethnobotanical uses, and therapeutic potential.

Saussurea costus (Falc.) Lipsch., commonly known as costus, is a perennial herb that has been traditionally used in various indigenous medicinal systems across Asia. Its historical prominence in traditional remedies underscores the need to explore its phytochemical composition, pharmacological properties, and potential therapeutic benefits. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the available literature on the pharmacological properties, phytochemical constituents, ethnobotanical uses, and therapeutic potential of S. costus. An exhaustive search was performed across multiple electronic databases, including PubMed/MedLine, Google Scholar, Web of Science, Scopus, TRIP database, and Science Direct. Both experimental and clinical studies, as well as traditional ethnobotanical records, were considered for inclusion. The phytochemical analysis revealed that S. costus contains a plethora of bioactive compounds, including sesquiterpenes, flavonoids, and essential oils, which are responsible for its myriad of medicinal properties. The pharmacological studies have demonstrated its anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, anti-cancer, hepatoprotective, and immunomodulatory effects, among others. Ethnobotanical data showcased its extensive use in treating ailments like asthma, digestive disorders, and skin conditions. Some clinical trials also underscore its efficacy in certain health conditions, corroborating its traditional uses. S. costus possesses significant therapeutic potential, largely attributable to its rich phytochemical composition; the convergence of its traditional uses and modern pharmacological findings suggests promising avenues for future research, especially in drug development and understanding its mechanism of action in various ailments.

Undescribed amino acid-sesquiterpene lactone adducts and sesquiterpene glycosides from the roots of Saussurea lappa and their anti-HBV activity.

Saussurea lappa (Asteraceae family), a traditional Chinese medicine, has been found to possess anti-inflammatory, immune-promoting, antibacterial, antitumor, anti-HBV, cholestatic, and hepatoprotective activities. Herein, two undescribed amino acid-sesquiterpene lactone adducts, saussureamines G and H (1 and 2), and two new sesquiterpene glycosides, saussunosids F and G (3 and 4), along with 26 known sesquiterpenoids (5-30) have been isolated from the roots of S. lappa. Their structures and absolute configurations of these compounds were established by physical data analyses such as HRESIMS, IR, 1D and 2D NMR and ECD calculations. All isolated compounds were tested for anti-hepatitis B virus (anti-HBV) activity. Ten compounds (5, 6, 12, 13, 17, 19, 23, 26, 29, and 30) exhibited activities against the secretions of HBsAg and HBeAg. In particular, compound 6 showed inhibition of HBsAg and HBeAg secretion with IC50 values of 11.24 and 15.12 µM, with SI values of 1.25 and 0.93, respectively. Molecular docking studies were also conducted on the anti-HBV compounds. Overall, this study provides insights into the potential therapeutic uses of the compounds found in the roots of S. lappa, particularly in the treatment of hepatitis B virus infections.

HPLC-PDA Method for Quantification of Bioactive Compounds in Crude Extract and Fractions of Aucklandia costus Falc. and Cytotoxicity Studies against Cancer Cells.

Aucklandia costus Falc. (Synonym: Saussurea costus (Falc.) Lipsch.) is a perennial herb of the family Asteraceae. The dried rhizome is an essential herb in the traditional systems of medicine in India, China and Tibet. The important pharmacological activities reported for Aucklandia costus are anticancer, hepatoprotective, antiulcer, antimicrobial, antiparasitic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-fatigue activities. The objective of this study was the isolation and quantification of four marker compounds in the crude extract and different fractions of A. costus and the evaluation of the anticancer activity of the crude extract and its different fractions. The four marker compounds isolated from A. costus include dehydrocostus lactone, costunolide, syringin and 5-hydroxymethyl-2-furaldehyde. These four compounds were used as standard compounds for quantification. The chromatographic data showed good resolution and excellent linearity (r2 ˃ 0.993). The validation parameters, such as inter- and intraday precision (RSD < 1.96%) and analyte recovery (97.52-110.20%; RSD < 2.00%),revealed the high sensitivity and reliability of the developed HPLC method. The compounds dehydrocostus lactone and costunolide were concentrated in the hexane fraction (222.08 and 65.07 µg/mg, respectively) and chloroform fraction (99.02 and 30.21 µg/mg, respectively), while the n-butanol fraction is a rich source of syringin (37.91 µg/mg) and 5-hydroxymethyl-2-furaldehyde (7.94 µg/mg). Further, the SRB assay was performed for the evaluation of anticancer activity using lung, colon, breast and prostate cancer cell lines. The hexane and chloroform fractions show excellent IC50 values of 3.37 ± 0.14 and 7.527 ± 0.18 µg/mL, respectively, against the prostate cancer cell line (PC-3).

Study on the Comprehensive Phytochemicals and the Anti-Ulcerative Colitis Effect of Saussurea pulchella.

BACKGROUND: Saussurea pulchella (SP) is a traditional medicinal plant that is widely used in folk medicine because of its diverse biological activities, particularly its anti-inflammatory effects. However, the alleviation effect of SP on ulcerative colitis (UC) has not yet been realized. PURPOSE: To investigate the chemical composition and therapeutic effect of SP extract against UC. METHODS: First, qualitative and quantitative analysis of SP 75% ethanol extract was performed by UPLC-Q/TOF-MS. Second, a dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) model of UC mice was developed to study the effects of SP on the symptoms, inflammatory factors, oxidative stress indexes and colon histopathology. Third, an integration of network pharmacology with metabolomics was performed to investigate the key metabolites, biological targets and metabolisms closely related to the effect of SP. RESULTS: From the SP ethanol extract, 149 compounds were identified qualitatively and 20 were determined quantitatively. The SP could dose-dependently decrease the DAI score, spleen coefficient and the levels of TNF-α, IL-6, iNOS, MPO and MDA; increase the colon length, GSH level and SOD activity; and protect the intestinal barrier in the UC mice. Moreover, 10 metabolite biomarkers,18 targets and 5 metabolisms were found to play crucial roles in the treatment of UC with SP. CONCLUSIONS: SP 75% ethanol extract could effectively alleviate the progression of UC and, therefore, could be classified as a novel natural treatment for UC.

Anti-Struvite, Antimicrobial, and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Aqueous and Ethanolic Extracts of Saussurea costus (Falc) Lipsch Asteraceae.

Saussurea costus (Falc) Lipsch is a traditional herb used to treat kidney stone problems because it contains several molecules used to treat this health problem, such as quercitrin. Infectious stones are the most painful of all urinary tract disorders, with ammonium phosphate (struvite) and carbapatite stones being the most common, caused by a bacterial infection with urease activity. These stones are treated with antibiotics, but antibiotic resistance is on the rise. The current study investigated the anti-urolithic activities of S. costus aqueous and ethanolic extracts of against struvite crystals synthesized using microscopic crystallization and turbidimetric methods, respectively. The utilized methods indicated that the ethanolic extract of this plant has a significant inhibitory effect on struvite crystallization, with a percentage inhibition of (87.45 ± 1.107) (p < 0.001) for a concentration of 1 mg mL−1 and a decrease in the number of struvite crystals, reaching values less than 100/mm3. For the number of struvite crystals inhibited by cystone, we found a value of 400/mm3 and with the aqueous extract we found 700/mm3. The antibacterial activity of the plant extracts studied was examined against several urease-producing bacteria, and this activity was evaluated by qualitative and quantitative evaluation methods; the highest minimum inhibitory concentration was seen in the ethanolic extract, with an MIC of 50 mg mL−1 for Staphylococcus aureus followed by an MIC of 200 mg mL−1 for Klebsiella pneumoniae. It showed a minimal bactericidal concentration (MBC) against S. aureus and K. pneumoniae (>50 mg mL−1 and >200 mg mL−1, respectively). Furthermore, to determine the extract's anti-inflammatory activity, in vivo anti-inflammatory activity was investigated in rats. The results show that at a dose of 400 mg kg−1, the ethanolic extract has a maximum edema inhibition of 66%.

Impact of Saussurea lappa root extract against copper oxide nanoparticles induced oxidative stress and toxicity in rat cardiac tissues.

Copper oxide nanoparticles (CuO NPs) have developed as a significant class of nanomaterial with potential dangers to organisms and the environment in a variety of applications. This study aimed to investigate the impact of costus root extract against CuO NPs induced oxidative stress, alterations in heart structure and functions. 40 adult male rats were assigned randomly to four groups: first; control, second; costus (300 mg/kg body weight/day) orally for 2 weeks, third; CuO NPs (100 mg/kg body weight/day) intraperitoneally for 4 weeks and fourth; CuO NPs + costus. Current results revealed, significant increases in serum levels of creatine kinase-MB, creatine kinase enzyme, lactate dehydrogenase, myoglobin, aspartate aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, cardiac TBIRS, total thiol, nitric oxide, and cardiac proliferating cell nuclear antigen after CuO NPs administration when compared with control group. Conversely, statistical significant decreases were detected in cardiac reduced glutathione, catalase, and superoxide dismutase in CuO NPs group as compared with control group. Interestingly, treatment of CuO NPs with costus root extract was associated with significant improvements of the studied parameters, heart structure and functions. CuO NPs-induced toxicity, injury and oxidative stress in rat heart and treatment with Costus root extract could scavenge free radicals producing beneficial effects against CuO NPs.

Five New Diarylbutyrolactones and Sesquilignans from Saussurea medusa and Their Inhibitory Effects on LPS-induced NO Production.

Five new diarylbutyrolactones and sesquilignans (1A/1B:  - 4: ), including one pair of enantiomers (1A/1B: ), together with 10 known analogues (5:  - 14: ), were isolated from the whole plants of Saussurea medusa. Compound 1: was found to possess an unusual 7,8'-diarylbutyrolactone lignan structure. Separation by chiral HPLC analysis led to the isolation of one pair of enantiomers, (+)-1A: and (-)-1B: . The structures of the new compounds were elucidated by extensive spectroscopic data. All compounds, except compounds 5, 7: and 9: , were isolated from S. medusa for the first time. Moreover, compounds 1:  -  4, 8: and 10:  - 14: had never been obtained from the genus Saussurea previously. Compounds (+)- 1A, 2, 5, 7: , and 9:  - 11: were found to inhibit the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced release of NO by RAW264.7 cells with IC50 values ranging from 10.1 ± 1.8 to 41.7 ± 2.1 µM. Molecular docking and iNOS expression experiments were performed to examine the interactions between the active compounds and the iNOS enzyme.

Comparison of Differences in Chemical Composition and Related Antioxidant Activity of Snow Lotus from Different Origins.

The snow lotus is an endangered traditional Chinese medicinal herb. Saussurea involucrata, Saussurea laniceps, and Saussurea medusa, the three main snow lotus species (five herbs and two S. involucrata cell cultures), were selected for this study. Snow lotus (XLs) was extracted using 75 % (v/v) ethanol. Two reversed phase-high performance liquid chromatography-diode array detector methods were developed and validated for the determination of 10 representative components in XLs. The antioxidant efficacy of XLs and their components was investigated using DPPH, ABTS free radical scavenging, and ROS inhibition experiments. The results showed that the IC50 for DPPH scavenging ranged from 0.06-0.29 mg/mL for XLs and from 0.13-0.63 mg/mL for ABTS, and could downregulate ROS to varying degrees. The results of the antioxidant activity showed that rutin, quercetin, and isochlorogenic acid A contributed to the antioxidant capacity of XLs. The high content and activity of the cell cultures indicate that they can serve as an effective alternative to snow lotus, thus providing a theoretical basis for the selection of herbs and cell cultures to fulfil various needs.

Planar bioluminescent cytotoxicity assay via genetically modified adherent human reporter cell lines, applied to authenticity screening of Saussurea costus root.

The hyphenation of high-performance thin-layer chromatography to effect-directed assays is a very straightforward way to detect individual bioactive zones, and at the same time, to investigate several samples simultaneously. The combination of the separation technique with adherent human cells applied on the same surface was recently shown to be possible. Since on-surface adherent cell assays are in their infancy, a planar bioluminescent cytotoxicity assay was developed to expand the possibilities. Human embryonic kidney (HEK) 293 or HeLa (cervical carcinoma) cells were chosen because of their fast growth rates and high rates of successful transfection, being suitable for the generation of genetically modified reporter cells. For the first time, HeLa cells were visualized on the wettable reversed phase plate surface using digital microscopy. For the generation of bioluminescent reporter cells, vectors for the expression of three luciferase enzymes of various origins were tested. The genetically modified HEK 293T-CMV-ELuc cells were the best suitable for the new planar cytotoxicity assay due to the faster growth rate, robustness, and stronger bioluminescence signal. The stable expression of luciferase under the control of a strong constitutive promoter allowed the cells to be used for the determination of the cytotoxicity of Saussurea costus root samples obtained from the market and to assess the authenticity of these samples. Any cytotoxic zone was detected as a dark zone inhibiting the cell bioluminescence. Five replicates of the dose-response curve confirmed the good assay performance and the cytotoxicity of a zone, which was assigned to costunolide and dehydrocostus lactone. By this, the proof-of-principle of the new planar bioluminescent cytotoxicity assay, which does not require expensive licensing, was successful.

Isolation, structure elucidation, and biological activity of polysaccharides from Saussurea involucrata.

The optimum extraction condition for the Saussurea involucrata polysaccharide (SIP) was determined to be a temperature of 80 °C, time 2 h, and a liquid-solid ratio of 30 mL/g with a yield of 11.37 %. An acidic homogenous polysaccharide, namely SIP-II was isolated from Saussurea involucrate through anion exchange and gel permeation column chromatography. The structure of the SIP-II was elucidated through the combination of HPLC, GC-MS, IC, peroxide oxidation, smith degradation, methylation, NMR analysis, it was mainly composed of arabinose, rhamnose, galactose, galacturonic acid, and glucose with the molar ratio of 19.85:20.30: 27.12:11.95:8.69 with a molecular weight of 237,570 Da. The glycosidic linkages of SIP-II mainly composed of →1)-α-L-Rhap-(2→, T-Araf, →1)-ß-D-GalpA-(4→, →1)-ß-D-Galp-(3,6→, →1)-ß-D-Galp-(6→, →1)-α-L-Rhap-(2,4→, T-Galp, and →1)-α-L-Araf-(5→. Meanwhile, the structures were characterized through extensive analysis of UV, FT-IR, SEM-EDX, CD, XRD, and TG. SIP-II possessed a remarkable anti-inflammatory activity by effectively inhibiting the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and inflammation-related mediators in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages, and the anti-inflammatory response of SIP-II might be attributed to the regulation of the NF-κB, MAPK and JAK/STAT pathways. The results showed that polysaccharides from Saussurea involucrate could be a potential ingredient in the functional food and pharmaceutical industry.

Phytochemical Discrimination, Biological Activity and Molecular Docking of Water-Soluble Inhibitors from Saussurea costus Herb against Main Protease of SARS-CoV-2.

Siddha medicine is one of the oldest medical systems in the world and is believed to have originated more than 10,000 years ago and is prevalent across ancient Tamil land. It is undeniable that inhibitor preferences rise with increasing solubility in water due to the considerations pertaining to the bioavailability and the ease of which unabsorbed residues can be disposed of. In this study, we showed the phytochemical discrimination of Saussurea costus extracted with water at room temperature as a green extraction procedure. A total of 48 compounds were identified using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The fatty acids had a high phytochemical abundance at 73.8%, followed by tannins at 8.2%, carbohydrates at 6.9%, terpenoids at 4.3%, carboxylic acids at 2.5%, hydrocarbons at 2.4%, phenolic compounds at 0.2%, and sterols at 1.5%. Of these compounds, 22 were docked on the active side and on the catalytic dyad of His41 and Cys145 of the main protease of SARS-CoV-2 (Mpro). Eight active inhibitors were carbohydrates, five were fatty acids, three were terpenoids, two were carboxylic acids, one was a tannin, one was a phenolic compound, and one was a sterol. The best inhibitors were 4,8,13-Cyclotetradecatriene-1,3-diol, 1,5,9-trimethyl-12-(1-methylethyl), Andrographolide, and delta.4-Androstene-3.beta.,17.beta.-diol, with a binding affinity that ranged from -6.1 kcal/mol to -6.5 kcal/mol. The inhibitory effect of Saussurea costus of SARS-CoV-2 entry into the cell was studied using a pseudovirus with Spike proteins from the D614G variant and the VOC variants Gamma and Delta. Based on the viral cycle of SARS-CoV-2, our results suggest that the Saussurea costus aqueous extract has no virucidal effect and inhibits the virus in the events after cell entry. Furthermore, the biological activity of the aqueous extract was investigated against HSV-1 virus and two bacterial strains, namely Staphylococcus aureus ATCC BAA 1026 and Escherichia coli ATCC 9637. According to this study, an enormous number of water-soluble inhibitors were identified from Saussurea costus against the Mpro, and this is unprecedented as far as we know.

Integrated metabolism, network pharmacology, and pharmacokinetics to explore the exposure differences of the pharmacodynamic material basis in vivo caused by different extraction methods for Saussurea involucrata.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Saussurea involucrata Kar.et Kir. (S.I.) has long been used as a precious national medicine and clinically proven to be an effective treatment for rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and cardiovascular diseases. In clinical practice, two extraction methods of S.I., including water decoction and alcohol extraction, are prescribed to treat the same conditions. Nevertheless, no study has been performed on the exposure differences of the pharmacodynamic material basis in vivo caused by different extraction methods. AIM OF THE STUDY: Based on the integrated strategy of metabolism, network pharmacology, and pharmacokinetics, we aimed to reveal exposure differences in pharmacodynamic substances caused by different extraction methods. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry (UPLC-HRMS) was employed to identify the chemical constituents of S.I. extracts and the metabolites in vivo after administration. Based on the analysis of prototype components in vivo, the major exposure active constituents, potential therapeutic targets and possible pharmacological mechanisms in RA treatment were investigated using network pharmacological analysis. Seven critical active components, including quercetin, hispidulin, apigenin, chlorogenic acid, arctigenin, syringin, and umbelliferone, were quantitatively compared between the alcohol, and aqueous extraction methods, which had been confirmed by the reference substance. RESULTS: The chemical comparison demonstrated that the types of chemicals in the two extracts were identical, mainly flavonoids, phenylpropanoids, coumarins, lignins, sesquiterpene lactones, and others, but the contents of the primary constituents in the aqueous extract were lower than those of the alcohol extract. A total of 30 prototype components and 174 metabolites were analyzed and identified in rat plasma, urine, fecal, and bile samples. Twenty-three prototype components were analyzed by network pharmacology, and seven critical active components were selected as representative markers for the pharmacokinetic study. Pharmacokinetic studies had shown that the Tmax values of apigenin, hispidulin, chlorogenic acid, arctigenin, and syringin after the oral administration of the alcohol extract were lower than those after the oral administration of the aqueous extract, and the above components in the alcohol extract could increase the absorption. Compared with the aqueous extract group, the Tmax and T1/2 of quercetin and umbelliferone were longer; it was suggested that alcohol extraction might have a slow-release and long-term effect on these two components. The relative bioavailability of apigenin, hispidulin, quercetin, chlorogenic acid, and umbelliferone in the alcohol extract group were higher than those in the aqueous extract group, which was consistent with the traditional clinical experience that alcohol extract could improve the efficacy of S.I. CONCLUSIONS: The major exposure active constituents in vivo were screened. The representative components that could be used in pharmacokinetics were determined by integrating network pharmacology and metabolism studies. The critical active compounds were quantitatively compared between the alcohol and aqueous extraction methods. This study clarified that flavonoids, coumarin, and phenylpropanoids might be the primary material basis that caused the exposure differences between aqueous and alcoholic extracts from S.I.. This research aimed to provide the basis of metabolism in vivo for further studying these pharmacodynamic differences.

Phytochemical investigation and pharmacological evaluation of methanolic flower extract of Saussurea heteromalla.

Saussurea heteromalla is the one of specie of Saussurea plant belonging to family Asteraceae. The Saussurea heteromalla found extensively in Pakistan. The literature review highlights numerous biological aspects of Saussurea heteromalla. This research therefore aims to assess its potential anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-cancer. Carrageenan induced rat paw edema model was used for the evaluation of anti-inflammatory activity. DPPH method was used to evaluate anti-oxidant activity. The MTT (3- [4, 5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2, 5 diphenyl tetrazolium bromide) test was used to assess the viability of the cells for the assessment of the cytotoxic effect of the extract. Methanolic Saussurea heteromalla flowers extract analysis carried by GC-MS, result 19 different peaks. The methanolic extract of Saussurea heteromalla at 400mg/kg dose have equal anti-inflammatory action when compare with standard that is diclofenac sodium. Anti-oxidant activity of methanolic extract is also very good. IC50 value of methanol extract was 25µg/ml. 18.72% cell survive out of 100 when methanolic flower extract of Saussurea heteromalla was given at the dose of 400mg, which shows the cytotoxic effect. This activity shows that plant Saussurea heteromalla methanolic flowers extract have anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, cytotoxic effect. The isolation and characterization-based investigations proclaiming the biologically leading active molecule are worthy for further study in this regard.

Tentatively Identified (UPLC/T-TOF-MS/MS) Compounds in the Extract of Saussurea costus Roots Exhibit In Vivo Hepatoprotection via Modulation of HNF-1α, Sirtuin-1, C/ebpα, miRNA-34a and miRNA-223.

Saussurea costus is a plant traditionally used for the treatment of several ailments. Our study accomplished the UPLC/T-TOF-MS/MS analysis of a methanol extract of Saussurea costus roots (MESC), in addition to lipoidal matter determination and assessment of its in vivo hepatoprotective activity. In this study, we were able to identify the major metabolites in MESC rather than the previously known isolated compounds, improving our knowledge of its chemical constituents. The flavones apigenin, acacetin, baicalein, luteolin, and diosmetin, and the flavonol aglycones quercetin, kaempferol, isorhamnetin, gossypetin, and myricetin and/or their glycosides and glucuronic derivatives were the major identified compounds. The hepatoprotective activity of MESC was evaluated by measuring catalase activity using UV spectrophotometry, inflammatory cytokines and apoptotic markers using ELISA techniques, and genetic markers using PCR. Paracetamol toxicity caused a significant increase in plasma caspase 2, cytokeratin 18 (CK18), liver tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin 6 (IL-6), miRNA-34a, and miRNA-223, as well as a significant decrease in liver catalase (CAT) activity and in the levels of liver nuclear factor 1α (HNF-1α), sirtuin-1, and C/ebpα. Oral pretreatment with MESC (200 mg/kg) showed a significant decrease in caspase 2, CK18, TNF-α, IL-6 and a significant increase in liver CAT activity. MESC decreased the levels of liver miRNA-34a and miRNA-223 and induced HNF-1α, sirtuin-1, and C/ebpα gene expression. The histological examination showed a significant normalization in rats pretreated with MESC. Our findings showed that Saussurea costus may exert a potent hepatoprotective activity through the modulation of the expression of cellular cytokines, miRNA-34a, and miRNA-223.

Lanicepines A and B, Sesquiterpenes with Amino Acid-Derived Substituents from the Flowering Aerial Parts of Saussurea laniceps.

Two new guaianolide sesquiterpenes, lanicepines A (1) and B (2), possessing unusual amino acid-derived substituents at C-13, were isolated from the flowering aerial parts of Saussurea laniceps, a traditional herbal medicine also known as "snow lotus". The structures of 1 and 2 were elucidated based on spectroscopic analysis including applications of the modified Mosher's method and Marfey's method as well as ECD calculations. Lanicepine A (1) contains a dihydropyridinone moiety with a carbamoyl and a hydroxymethyl group. This substituent was considered to consist of asparagine and a C4 unit. In contrast, lanicepine B (2) has a substituent that seems to be derived from l-proline and a C4 unit. Lanicepines A (1) and B (2) and two related known sesquiterpenes isolated from the same plant material, 11ß,13-dihydrodesacylcynaropicrin (3) and 11ß,13-dihydrodesacylcynaropicrin 8-O-ß-d-glucoside (4), demonstrated inhibitory activity against IL-1ß production from LPS-stimulated microglial cells.

Two new sesquiterpene dimers isolated from the roots of Saussurea lappa (Yunmuxiang).

Two new sesquiterpene dimers, lappadimers A and B, were isolated from the roots of Saussurea lappa (Yunmuxiang). Their structures were established on the basis of spectroscopic methods. They were found to have potential anti-inflammatory activity at 10 µM and could reduce LPS-induced NO levels in murine macrophage, with inhibitory rates of 67% and 47%, respectively.

Mechanism exploration of ancient pharmaceutic processing (Paozhi) improving the gastroprotective efficacy of Aucklandiae Radix.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Processing, also called Paozhi in Chinese, is an ancient Chinese pharmaceutic processing technique developed along with the Chinese herbal medicines (CHMs). The understanding of the mechanism of Paozhi has been investigated for several decades. Aucklandiae Radix (CAR) and its roasted processed products are all used in indigestion as a kind of CHMs. Processed Aucklandiae Radix (PAR) had a stronger effect to protect gastric mucosa than CAR, while the main compounds in CAR were reduced sharply after being processed. The underlying mechanism of this phenomenon is still unclear. AIM OF THE STUDY: This study was aimed to evaluate whether PAR have a stronger gastroprotective effect than CAR and the underlying mechanisms of such circumstance. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Ultra-fast liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometry (UFLC-QTOF-MS/MS) coupled with multivariate statistical analyses was employed to explore chemical compounds which had a relatively stable content in PAR. Based on the compounds selected as the research object, network pharmacology was applied to visualize the relationships between the selected components and the gastroprotective-related targets from disease database, at the same time the possible intervention path of CAR/PAR which might be responsible for the effect of CAR/PAR on gastritis-induced rats was also built. Then, the key proteins were detected by western blotting to verify and compare the pharmacological effects of CAR/PAR. RESULTS: Through UFLC-QTOF-MS/MS and orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA), sixteen compounds stable in PAR were discovered, of which saussureamine C and saussureamine B were estimated as the core compounds to exert gastroprotective in PAR predicted by network pharmacology analysis. Under the guide of KEGG pathway enrichment analysis, PI3K/AKT, p38 MAPK (Mitogen-activated protein kinase) and nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathways were forecasted as the possible healing mechanisms of CAR/PAR, and that result was verified by the experiments in vivo. PAR performed a stronger ability to reduce the level of p38 MAPK and NF-κB p65 than CAR, which may partially explain the different ability of CAR/PAR against gastric mucosa damage. CONCLUSION: This study clarified that although Paozhi entailed a sharp decrease on the main compounds of CAR, there were some compounds which were not sensitive to high temperature and preserved in PAR and had a relative higher content in PAR than in CAR. PAR has stronger influence on MAPKs/NF-κB signaling pathway than CAR, which may reveal that the stronger gastroprotective effect of PAR perhaps rely on the constitutions with a higher relative abundance after Paozhi. The present research combined UFLC-QTOF-MS/MS and network pharmacology deeply investigated the impact of the roasted processing on the chemical constitutions and gastroprotective effect of CAR and offered reference for the clinical application of CAR/PAR.

Chemical constituents from the aerial parts of Saussurea involucrata with their inhibitory activities on α-glucosidase.

A new aurone glycoside named licoagroaurone 6-O-α-ʟ-arabinopyranoside (1), together with six known compounds (2-7), was isolated from EtOAc-soluble extract of the aerial parts of Saussurea involucrata. Their structures were elucidated on the basis of spectroscopic methods. All compounds were evaluated for their inhibitory activities against α-glucosidase in vitro. Among them, compounds 1 and 6 showed significant inhibitory activities on α-glucosidase with the IC50 values of 47.1 and 57.7 µM, respectively.

In-vitro propagation and phytochemical profiling of a highly medicinal and endemic plant species of the Himalayan region (Saussurea costus).

Efficient protocols for callus induction and micro propagation of Saussurea costus (Falc.) Lipsch were developed and phytochemical diversity of wild and in-vitro propagated material was investigated. Brown and red compact callus was formed with frequency of 80-95%, 78-90%, 70-95% and 65-80% from seeds, leaf, petiole and root explants, respectively. MS media supplemented with BAP (2.0 mgL-1), NAA (1.0 mgL-1) and GA3 (0.25 mgL-1) best suited for multiple shoot buds initiation (82%), while maximum shoot length was formed on media with BAP (1.5 mgL-1), NAA (0.25 mgL-1) and Kinetin (0.5 mgL-1). Full strength media with IAA (0.5 mgL-1) along with IBA (0.5 mgL-1) resulted in early roots initiation. Similarly, maximum rooting (87.57%) and lateral roots formation (up to 6.76) was recorded on full strength media supplemented with BAP (0.5 mgL-1), IAA (0.5 mgL-1) and IBA (0.5 mgL-1). Survival rate of acclimatized plantlets in autoclaved garden soil, farmyard soil, and sand (2:1:1) was 87%. Phytochemical analysis revealed variations in biochemical contents i.e. maximum sugar (808.32 µM/ml), proline (48.14 mg/g), ascorbic acid (373.801 mM/g) and phenolic compounds (642.72 mgL-1) were recorded from callus cultured on different stress media. Nonetheless, highest flavenoids (59.892 mg/g) and anthocyanin contents (32.39 mg/kg) were observed in in-vitro propagated plants. GC-MS analysis of the callus ethyl acetate extracts revealed 24 different phytochemicals. The variability in secondary metabolites of both wild and propagated plants/callus is reported for the first time for this species. This study may provide a baseline for the conservation and sustainable utilization of S. costus with implications for isolation of unique and pharmacologically active compounds from callus or regenerated plantlets.